Literatures/References

  1. G. Harman, Wire Bonding in Microelectronics Materials, Processes, Reliability and Yield, 2nd Edition, McGraw Hill, 1997, pp. 68-70.
  2. Horsting, C.W., “Purple Plague and Gold Purity,” 10th Annual Proc. IEEE Reliability Physics Symp., Las Vegas, Nevada, 1972, pp. 155-158. 
  3. Philofsky, E., “Intermetallic Formation in Gold-Aluminum Systems,” Solid State Electronics, Vol. 13, 1970, pp. 1391-1399.
  4. Philofsky, E., “Design Limits when Using Gold-Aluminum Bonds,” Proc. IEEE Reliability Physics Symp., Las Vegas, Nevada, April 1971, pp. 11-16.
  5. Philofsky, E., “Purple Plague Revisited,” Proc. IEEE Reliability Physics Symp., Las Vegas, Nevada, April 1970, pp. 177-185.
  6. Ramsey, T.H., and Alfaro, C., “The Effect of Ultrasonic Frequency in Intermetallic Reactivity of Au-Al Bonds,” Solid State Technology, Vol. 34, Dec.1991, pp.37-38.
  7. See, for example, Hanson, M., The Constitution of Binary Phase Diagrams, 2d Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958
  8. Dunn, C.F., and McPherson, J.W., “Temperature-Cycling Acceleration Factors for Aluminum Metallization Failure in VLSI Applications,” Proc. IEEE IRPS, New Orleans, Louisiana, 1990, pp. 252-255.
  9. Gerling, W., “Electrical and Physical Characterization of Gold-Ball Bonds on Aluminum Layers,” IEEE ECC, New Orleans, Louisiana, May 14-16, 1984, pp. 13-20.
  10. Weaver, C., and Brown, L.C., “Diffusion in Evaporated Films of Gold-Aluminum,” Phil, Mag., Vol.7, pp. 1-16.
  11. Schnable, G.L., and Keen, R.S., RADC Contract No. AF 30, 1966.
  12. Kashiwabara, M., and Hattori, S., “Formation of Al-Au Intermetallic Compounds and Resistance Increase for Ultrasonic Al Wire Bonding,” Rev. of the Elect. Communications Lab. (NTT), Vol. 17, Sept. 1969, pp.1001-1013.
  13. Onishi, M., and Fukumoto, K., “Diffusion Formation of Intermetallic Compounds in Au-Al Couples by Use of Evaporated Al Films,” Jap. J. Met. Soc., 1974, pp. 38-46.
  14. Chen, G.K.C., “On the Physics of Purple-Plague Formation, and the Observation of Purple Plague in Ultrasonically-Joined Gold-Aluminum Bonds,” IEEE Trans. on PMP, Vol. 3, 1967, pp. 149-155.
  15. Anderson, J.H., and Cox, W.P., “ Failure Modes in Gold-Aluminum Thermocompression Bonds,” IEEE Trans. Reliability, Vol. 18, 1969, pp. 206-211.
  16.  Charles, H.K. Jr., and Clatterbaugh, G.V., “Ball Bond Shearing- A Complement to the Wire Bond Pull Test,” Intl. J. Hybrid Micro., Vol. 6, 1983, pp. 171-186.
  17. Maiocco, L., Smyers, D., Munroe, P.R., and Baker, I., “Correlation between Electrical Resistance and Microstructure in Gold Wirebonds on Aluminum Films,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 13, September 1990, pp. 592-595.
  18. Murcko, R.M., Susko, R.A., and Lauffer, J.M., “Resistance Drift in Aluminum to Gold Ultrasonic Wire Bonds,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 14, December 1991, pp.843-847.
  19. Majni, G., and Ottaviani, G., “Au-Al Compound Formation by Thin Film Interactions,” J. Crystal Growth, Vol. 47, pp. 583-588, 1979. Also see, J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 52, June 1981, pp.4047-4052.
  20. White, M.L., Serpiello, J.W., Stringy, K.M., and Rosenzweig, W., “The Use of Silicone RTV Rubber for Alpha Particle Protection on Silicon Integrated Circuits,” Proc. 19th IRPS, Orlando, Florida, April 7-9, 1981, pp. 43-47.
  21. Shih, D.Y., and Ficalora, P.J., “The Reduction of Au-Al Intermetallic Formation and Electromigration in Hydrogen Environments,” 16th Proc. IEEE IRPS, San Diego, California, 1978, pp. 268-272.
  22. Horowitz, S.J., Felton, J.J., Gerry, D.J., Larry, J.R. and Rosenberg, R.M., “Recent Developments in Gold Conductor Bonding Performance and Failure Mechanisms,” Solid State Technology, Vol. 22, March 1979, pp.37-44.
  23. Hund, T.D., and Plunkett, P.V., “Improving Thermosonic Gold Ball Bond Reliability,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 8, 1985,pp. 446-456.
  24. Goldstein, J.L.F., Tuckerman, D.B., Kim, P.C., and Fernandez, A., “A Novel Flip-Chip Process,” 1995 Proc. SMI, San Jose, California, Aug. 29-31, 1995, pp. 59-71.
  25. Larson, E.N., and Brock, M.J., “Development of a Single Point Gold Bump Process for TAB Applications,” Proc. Of 1993 Intl. Conf. On Multichip Modules, Denver, Colorado, April 14-16, 1993, pp. 391-397.
  26. Nowicki, R.S., “Improving Metallization Reliability at the Component Level,” Proc. 1992 Intl. Symp. On Microelectronics (ISHM). San Francisco, California, Oct. 19-21, 1992, pp.731-736.
  27. Tung, C.H., Kim, Y-S., and Ghang, S-M., “Tape Automated Bonding Inner Lead Bonded Devices (TAB/ILB) Failure Analysis,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 16, May 1993, pp.304-310.
  28. Tjhia, E., and Nguyen, T., “Bump Metallurgies for Tape Automated Bonding (TAB) in Ceramic Packages,” Proc. 1992 Intl, Symp. On Microelectronics (ISHM), San Francisco, California, Oct. 19-21, 1992, pp. 421-426.
  29. Ueno, H., “Reliable Au Wire Bonding to Al/Ti/Al Pad,” Jap. J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 32, 1993, pp. 2157-2161.
  30. Paulson, W.M., and Lorigan, R.P., “The Effect of Impurities in the Corrosion of Aluminum Metallization,” Proc. IEEE IRPS, Las Vegas, Nevada, April 20-22, 1976, pp.42-47.
  31. Thomas, R.E., Winchell, V., James, K., and Scharr, T., “Plastic Outgassing Induced Wire Bond Failure,” 27th Proc. IEEE Electronics Components Conf., Arlington, Virginia, May 16-18, 1977, pp. 182-187.
  32. Richie, R.J., and Andrews, D.M., “CF4/02 Plasma Accelerated Aluminum Metallization Corrosion in Plastic Encapsulated ICs in the Presence of Contaminated Die Attach Epoxies,” 19th IEEE IRPS, Orlando, Florida, April 7-9, 1981, pp.88-92.
  33. Gale, R.J., “Epoxy Degradation Induced Au-Al Intermetallic Void Formation in Plastic Encapsulated MOS Memories,” 22nd IEEE IRPS, Las Vegas, Nevada, April 3-5, 1984, pp. 37-47.
  34. Khan, M.M., and Fatemi, H., “Gold-Aluminum Bond Failure Induced by Halogenated Additives in Epoxy Molding Compounds,” Proc. 1986 Intl. Symp. On Microelectronics (ISHM), Atlanta, Georgia, Oct. 6-8, 1986, pp. 420-427.
  35. Klein, H.P., “Dry Corrosion in Gold-Aluminum Ball Bonds,” Proc. 5th Intl. Conf. On Quality in Electronic Components, Bordeaux, France, Oct. 7-10, 1991, pp. 889-897.
  36. Gallo, A.A., “Effect on Mold Compound Components on Moisture-Induced Degradation of Gold-Aluminum Bonds in Epoxy Encapsulated Devices,” Proc. 1990 IEEE IRPS, 1990, pp. 244-251.
  37. Ritz, K.N., Stacy, W.T., and Broadbent, E.K., “The Microstructure of Ball Bond Corrosion Failures,” 25th Annual Proc. IEEE Reliability Physics Symp., April 1987, San Diego, California, pp. 28-33.
  38. Lum, R.M., and Feinstein, L.G., “Investigation of the Molecular Processes Controlling Corrosion Failure Mechanisms in Plastic Encapsulated Semiconductor Devices,” 30th Proc. ECC, San Francisco, California, April 28-30, 1980, pp. 113-120.
  39. Nesheim, J.K., “The Effects of Ionic and Organic Contamination on Wirebond Reliability,” Proc. 1984 Intl. Symp. on Microelectronics (ISHM), Dallas, Texas, Sept. 17-19, 1984, pp.70-78.
  40. Pavio, J., Jung, R., Doering, C., Roebuck, R., and Franzone, M., “Working Around the Fluorine Factor in Wire Bond Reliability,” Proc. 1984 Intl. Symp. on Microelectronics (ISHM), Dallas, Texas, Sept. 17-19, 1984, pp.0428-432.
  41. Lee, W-Y., Eldridge, J.M., and Schwartz, G.C., “Reactive Ion Etching Induced Corrosion of Al and Al-Cu Films,” J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 52, April 1981, pp.2994-2999.
  42. Graves, J.F., and Gurany, W., “Reliability Effects of Flourine Contamination of Aluminum bonding Pads on Semiconductor Chips,” 32nd Proc. ECC, San Diego, California, May 10-12, 1982, pp. 266-267.
  43. Forrest, N.H., “Reliability Aspects of Minute Amounts of Chlorine on Wire Bonds Exposed to Pre-Seal Burn-In,” Intl. J. Hybrid Microelectronics, Vol. 5, Nov. 1982, pp. 549-551. (Note: Figures omitted from paper-contact its author.)
  44. Gustafsson, K., and Lindborg, U., “Chlorine Content in and Life of Plastic Encapsulated Micro-Circuits,” 37th Proc. ECC, Boston, Massachusetts, May 11-13, 1987, pp.491-499.
  45. Blish, R.C.II, and Parobek, L., “Wire Bond Integrity Test Chip,” 21st Proc. IEEE IRPS, Phoenix, Arizona, April 5-7, 1983, pp. 142-147.
  46. Ahmad, S., Blish, R.C.II, Corbett, T., King, J., and Shirley, G., “Effect of Bromine Concentration in Molding Compounds on Gold Ball Bonds to Aluminum Bonding Pads,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 9, 1986, pp. 379-385.
  47. Koeninger, V., Uchida, H.H., and Fromm, E., “Degradation of Gold-Aluminum Ball Bonds by Aging and Contamination,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Part A, Vol. 18, Dec. 1995, pp. 835-841.
  48. Kern, W., “Radiochemical Study of Semiconductor Surface Contamination, I. Adsorption of Reagent components,” RCA Review, June 1970, pp. 224-228.
  49. Charles, H.K. Jr., Romeneske, B.M., Wagner, G.D., Benson, R.C., and Uy, O.M., “The Influence of Contamination in Aluminum-Gold Intermetallics,” 20th Proc. IRPS, San Diego, California, March 30-31, 1982, pp. 128-139.
  50.  Khan, M.M., Tarter, T.S., and Fatemi, H., “ Sluminum Bond Pad Contamination by Thermal Outgassing of Organic Material from Silver-Filled Epoxy Adhesives,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 10, 1987, pp. 586-592.
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  52. Kurtz, J., Cousens, D., and Dufour, M., “Copper Wire Ball Bonding,” 34th Proc. ECC, New Orleans, Louisiana, May 14-16, 1984, pp. 1-5.
  53. Hirota, J., Machida, K., Okuda, T., Shimotomai, M., and Kawanaka, R., “The Development of Copper Wire Bonding for Plastic Molded Semiconductor Packages,” 35th Proc. IEEE ECC, Washington, D.C., May 20-22, 1985, pp.116-121.
  54. Atsumi, K., Ando, T., Kobayashi, M., and Usuda, O., “Ball Bonding Technique for Copper Wire,” 36th Proc. ECC, Seattle, Washington, May 5-7, 1986, pp.312-317.
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  56. Onuki, J., Koizumi, M., and Araki, L., “Investigation on the Reliability of Copper Ball Bonds to Aluminum Electrodes,” IEEE Trans. on CHMT, Vol. 10, 1987, pp. 550-555.
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